Alkylphenols
Commonly used alkylphenol compounds include nonylphenols (NPs) and octylphenols and their ethoxylates, particularly nonylphenol ethoxylates. NPs are widely used in the textiles industry in cleaning and dyeing processes. They are toxic to aquatic life, persist in the environment and can accumulate in body tissue and biomagnify (increase in concentration through the food chain). Their similarity to natural oestrogen hormones can disrupt sexual development in some organisms, most notably causing the feminisation of fish.

Phthalates
Phthalates are a group of chemicals most commonly used to soften PVC (the plastic polyvinyl chloride). In the textile industry they are used in artificial leather, rubber and PVC and in some dyes. There are substantial concerns about the toxicity of phthalates such as DEHP (Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate), which is reprotoxic in mammals, as it can interfere with development of the testes in early life.

Brominated and chlorinated flame retardants
Many brominated flame retardants (BFRs) are persistent and bioaccumulative chemicals that are now present throughout the environment. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are one of the most common groups of BFRs and have been used to fireproof a wide variety of materials, including textiles. Some PBDEs are capable of interfering with the hormone systems involved in growth and sexual development.

Azo dyes
Azo dyes are one of the main types of dye used by the textile industry. However, some azo dyes break down during use and release chemicals known as aromatic amines, some of which can cause cancer.

Organotin compounds
Organotin compounds are used in biocides and as antifungal agents in a range of consumer products. Within the textile industry they have been used in products such as socks, shoes and sport clothes to prevent odour caused by the breakdown of sweat. One of the best-known organotin compounds is tributyltin (TBT). One of its main uses was in antifouling paints for ships, until evidence emerged that it persists in the environment, builds up in the body and can affect immune and reproductive systems. Its use as an antifouling paint is now largely banned.

Perfluorinated chemicals
Perfluorinated chemicals (PFCs) are manmade chemicals widely used by industry for their non-stick and water-repellent properties. In the textile industry they are used to make textile and leather products both water and stain-proof. Evidence shows that many PFCs persist in the environment and can accumulate in body tissue and biomagnify (increasing in levels) through the food chain. Once in the body some have been shown to affect the liver as well as acting as hormone disruptors, altering levels of growth and reproductive hormones. The best known of the PFCs is perfluorooctane sulphonate (PFOS), a compound highly resistant to degradation; it is expected to persist for very long periods in the environment.

Chlorobenzenes
Chlorobenzenes are persistent and bioaccumulative chemicals that have been used as solvents and biocides, in the manufacture of dyes and as chemical intermediaries. The effects of exposure depend on the type of chlorobenzene; however, they commonly affect the liver, thyroid and central nervous system. Hexachlorobenzene (HCB), the most toxic and persistent chemical of this group, is also a hormone disruptor.

Chlorinated solvents
Chlorinated solvents - such as trichloroethane (TCE) - are used by textile manufacturers to dissolve other substances during manufacturing and to clean fabrics. TCE is an ozone-depleting substance that can persist in the environment. It is also known to affect the central nervous system, liver and kidneys.

Chlorophenols
Chlorophenols are a group of chemicals used as biocides in a wide range of applications, from pesticides to wood preservatives and textiles. Pentachlorophenol (PCP) and its derivatives are used as biocides in the textile industry. PCP is highly toxic to humans and can affect many organs in the body. It is also highly toxic to aquatic organisms.

Short-chain chlorinated paraffins
Short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) are used in the textile industry as flame retardants and finishing agents for leather and textiles. They are highly toxic to aquatic organisms, do not readily break down in the environment and have a high potential to accumulate in living organisms.

Heavy metals: cadmium, lead, mercury and chromium-6
Heavy metals such as cadmium, lead and mercury, have been used in certain dyes and pigments used for textiles. These metals can accumulate in the body over time and are highly toxic, with irreversible effects including damage to the nervous system (lead and mercury) or the kidneys (cadmium). Cadmium is also known to cause cancer. Uses of chromium-6 include certain textile processes and leather tanning: it is highly toxic even at low concentrations, including to many aquatic organisms.*